Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources to multiply, usually at the expense of the host. The infecting organism, or pathogen, interferes with the normal functioning of the host and can lead to chronic wounds, gangrene, loss, disease A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal disfunctions, such as autoimmune diseases, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own healthy cells and tissues in order to function adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.

Adaptive immunity The adaptive immune system is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogenic challenges. Thought to have arisen in the first jawed vertebrates, the adaptive or "specific" immune system is activated by the “non-specific” and evolutionarily older innate immune system . The adaptive is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions Immunity against infections that can cause serious illness is generally beneficial. Since Pasteur provided support for a germ theory of infectious disease, we have increasingly induced immunity against a widening range of diseases to prevent the associated risks from the wild infections. It is hoped that further understanding of the molecular such as vaccination. Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from a immune host. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived -- usually lasting only a few months -- whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life-long. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity.

Contents

A further subdivision of adaptive immunity is characterized by the cells involved; humoral immunity The Humoral Immune Response is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by secreted antibodies (as opposed to cell-mediated immunity, which involves T lymphocytes) produced in the cells of the B lymphocyte lineage (B cell). B Cells (with co-stimulation) transform into plasma cells which secrete antibodies. The co-stimulation of the B cell can come is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by secreted antibodies, whereas the protection provided by cell mediated immunity Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells , antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Historically, the immune system was separated into two branches: humoral involves T-lymphocytes alone. Humoral immunity is active when the organism generates its own antibodies, and passive when antibodies are transferred between individuals. Similarly, cell mediated immunity is active when the organisms’ own T-cells are stimulated and passive when T cells come from another organism.

History of theories of immunity

A representation of the cholera Cholera is a severe bacterial infection caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae, which primarily affects the small intestine. The main symptoms include profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting. Transmission is primarily by the acquisition of the pathogen through contaminated drinking water or infected food. The severity of the diarrhea and associated epidemic In epidemiology, an epidemic , occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is "expected," based on recent experience (the number of new cases in the population during a specified period of time is called the "incidence rate"). (An epizootic is the of the nineteenth century.

The concept of immunity has intrigued mankind for thousands of years. The prehistoric view of disease was that it was caused by supernatural forces, and that illness was a form of theurgic Theurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself punishment for “bad deeds” or “evil thoughts” visited upon the soul by the gods or by one’s enemies.[1] Between the time of Hippocrates Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos - Greek: Ἱπποκράτης; Hippokrátēs was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical Athens), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the Western father of medicine in recognition of his lasting contributions to the and the 19th century, when the foundations of the scientific method were laid, diseases were attributed to an alteration or imbalance in one of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile or black bile).[2] Also popular during this time was the miasma theory The miasmatic theory of disease held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia or the Black Death were caused by a miasma , a noxious form of "bad air". This concept has been supplanted by the germ theory of disease, which held that diseases such as cholera Cholera is a severe bacterial infection caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae, which primarily affects the small intestine. The main symptoms include profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting. Transmission is primarily by the acquisition of the pathogen through contaminated drinking water or infected food. The severity of the diarrhea and associated or the Black Plague The Black Death was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. It is widely thought to have been an outbreak of bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, but this view has recently been challenged. Usually thought to have started in Central Asia, it had reached the Crimea by 1346. From were caused by a miasma, a noxious form of "bad air".[1] If someone were exposed to the miasma, they could get the disease.

The modern word “immunity” derives from the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many immunis, meaning exemption from military service, tax payments or other public services.[3] The first written descriptions of the concept of immunity may have been made by the Athenian Thucydides Thucydides (Greek Θουκυδίδης, Thoukydídēs) was a Greek historian and author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens to the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientific history" because of his strict standards of evidence-gathering and who, in 430 BC, described that when the plague hit Athens Athens (pronounced /ˈæθɨnz/; Modern Greek: Αθήνα, Athina, IPA: [aˈθina], Katharevousa/Ancient Greek: Ἀθῆναι, Athēnai , the capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery; as one of the world's oldest cities, its recorded history spans around 3,400 years “the sick and the dying were tended by the pitying care of those who had recovered, because they knew the course of the disease and were themselves free from apprehensions. For no one was ever attacked a second time, or not with a fatal result”.[3] The term “immunes”, is also found in the epic poem “Pharsalia” written around 60 B.C. by the poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus Marcus Annaeus Lucanus , better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba), in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Silver Latin period. His youth and speed of composition set him apart from other poets to describe a North African tribe’s resistance to snake venom Snake venom is highly modified saliva[citation needed] that is produced by special glands of certain species of snakes. The gland which secretes the zootoxin is a modification of the parotid salivary gland of other vertebrates, and is usually situated on each side of the head below and behind the eye, invested in a muscular sheath. It is provided.[2]

The first clinical description of immunity which arose from a specific disease causing organism is probably Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah (A Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, translated 1848[4]) written by the Islamic Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called physician Al-Razi Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī , known as Rhazes or Rasis after medieval Latinists, (August 26, 865, Rey – 925, Rey) was a Persian physician, alchemist and chemist, philosopher, and scholar. He is recognised as a polymath, and Biographies of Razi, based on his writings, describe him as “perhaps the greatest clinician of all times.” Numerous in the 9th century. In the treatise, Al Razi describes the clinical presentation of smallpox and measles and goes on to indicate that that exposure to these specific agents confers lasting immunity (although he does not use this term).[2] However, it was with Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of disease. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccine for rabies. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general’s Germ theory of disease The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, it is now a cornerstone of modern medicine and clinical microbiology, leading to such important innovations as antibiotics and hygienic practices that the fledgling science of immunology Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ; the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics began to explain how bacteria caused disease, and how, following infection, the human body gained the ability to resist further insults.[3]

Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, 1885.

The birth of active immunotherapy may have begun with Mithridates VI of Pontus.[5] To induce active immunity for snake venom, he recommended using a method similar to modern toxoid serum therapy Vaccines can be prophylactic , or therapeutic (e.g. vaccines against cancer are also being investigated; see cancer vaccine), by drinking the blood of animals which fed on venomous snakes.[5] According to Jean de Maleissye, Mithridates assumed that animals feeding on venomous snakes acquired some detoxifying property in their bodies, and their blood must contain attenuated or transformed components of the snake venom. The action of those components might be strengthening the body to resist against the venom instead of exerting toxic effect. Mithridates reasoned that, by drinking the blood of these animals, he could acquire the similar resistance to the snake venom as the animals feeding on the snakes.[5] Similarly, he sought to harden himself against poison, and took daily sub-lethal doses to build tolerance. Mithridates is also said to have fashioned a 'universal antidote' to protect him from all earthly poisons.[2] For nearly 2000 years, poisons were thought to be the proximate cause of disease, and a complicated mixture of ingredients, called Mithridate, was used to cure poisoning during the Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the.[2] An updated version of this cure, Theriacum Andromachi, was used well into the 19th century.[6] In 1888 Emile Roux Pierre Paul Emile Roux (December 17, 1853, Confolens , France – November 3, 1933, Paris) was a French physician, bacteriologist and immunologist who was one of the closest collaborators of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), a co-founder of the Pasteur Institute and discoverer of the anti-diphtheria serum, the first effective therapy for this disease and Alexandre Yersin Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin was a French (born Swiss) physician and bacteriologist. Along with Shibasaburo Kitasato he is remembered as the co-discoverer of the bacillus responsible for the bubonic plague or pest, which was later re-named in his honour (Yersinia pestis) isolated diphtheria toxin Diphtheria toxin is an exotoxin secreted by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the pathogen bacterium that causes diphtheria, and following the 1890 discovery by Behring and Kitasato Baron Kitasato Shibasaburō was a Japanese physician and bacteriologist. He is remembered as the co-discoverer of the infectious agent of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894, almost simultaneously with Alexandre Yersin of antitoxin based immunity to diphtheria Diphtheria (Greek διφθερα —“pair of leather scrolls") is an upper respiratory tract illness characterized by sore throat, low fever, and an adherent membrane (a pseudomembrane) on the tonsils, pharynx, and/or nasal cavity. A milder form of diphtheria can be restricted to the skin. Uncommon consequences include myocarditis (about 20% and tetanus Tetanus is a medical condition characterized by a prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibres. The primary symptoms are caused by tetanospasmin, a neurotoxin produced by the Gram-positive, obligate anaerobic bacterium Clostridium tetani. Infection generally occurs through wound contamination and often involves a cut or deep puncture wound. As, the antitoxin An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin. Antitoxins are produced by certain animals, plants, and bacteria. Although they are most effective in neutralizing toxins, they can kill bacteria and other microorganisms. Antitoxins are made within organisms, but can be injected into other organisms, including humans became the first major success of modern therapeutic Immunology.[2]

In Europe Europe is one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean and, the induction of active immunity emerged in an attempt to contain smallpox Smallpox is an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning spotted, or varus, meaning "pimple". The term "smallpox" was first used in Europe. Immunization, however, had existed in various forms for at least a thousand years.[3] The earliest use of immunization is unknown, however, around 1000 A.D. the Chinese began practicing a form of immunization by drying and inhaling powders derived from the crusts of smallpox lesions.[3] Around the fifteenth century in India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the, the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was a regime that lasted from 1299 to 1923, and east Africa East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:, the practice of variolation Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce, and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum, vaccine, or antigenic substance into the body of a human or animal, especially to produce or boost immunity to a specific disease; but also can be used to refer to the communication of a disease to a (poking the skin with powdered material derived from smallpox crusts) became quite common.[3] Variolation was introduced to the west in the early 18th century by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu The Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was an English aristocrat and writer. Montagu is today chiefly remembered for her letters, particularly her letters from Turkey, which have been described by Billie Melman as “the very first example of a secular work by a woman about the Muslim Orient”.[3] In 1796, Edward Jenner Edward Anthony Jenner was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley, Gloucestershire. Jenner is widely credited as the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, and is sometimes referred to as the 'Father of Immunology'. Jenner's discovery 'has saved more lives than the work of any other man' introduced the far safer method of inoculation Inoculation is the placement of something that will grow or reproduce, and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum, vaccine, or antigenic substance into the body of a human or animal, especially to produce or boost immunity to a specific disease. It can also be used to refer to the communication of a disease to a living with the cowpox Cowpox is a skin disease caused by a virus known as the Cowpox virus. The pox is related to the vaccinia virus, and got its name from the distribution of the disease when a herdsmen touched the udders of infected cows.[citation needed] The ailment manifests itself in the form of red blisters and is transmitted by touch from infected animals to virus, a non-fatal virus that also induced immunity to smallpox. The success and general acceptance of Jenner's procedure would later drive the general nature of vaccination Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material to produce immunity to a disease. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by many pathogens. There is strong evidence for the efficacy of the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine and the chicken pox vaccine among others. Vaccination is generally considered to be the most developed by Pasteur and others towards the end of the 19th century.[2]

Passive immunity

Main article: Passive immunity Passive immunity is the transfer of active humoral immunity in the form of readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can also be induced artificially, when high levels of human antibodies specific for a pathogen or

Passive immunity is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can also be induced artificially, when high levels of human Humans are a species of animal known taxonomically as Homo sapiens , and are the only extant member of the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae, the great ape family. However, in some cases "human" is used to refer to any member of the genus Homo (or horse The horse is a hooved (ungulate) mammal, a subspecies of the family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Although) antibodies Antibodies are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains—to form, for example, specific for a pathogen A pathogen, (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering, passion", and γἰγνομαι gignomai (gen-) "I give birth to") an infectious agent, or more commonly germ, is a biological agent that causes disease to its host. There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host; the principal pathways have or toxin A toxin is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms (although humans are technically living organisms, man-made substances created by artificial processes usually are not considered toxins by this definition). It was the organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849-1919) who first used the term 'toxin' are transferred to non-immune individuals. Passive immunization is used when there is a high risk of infection and insufficient time for the body to develop its own immune response, or to reduce the symptoms of ongoing or immunosuppressive diseases.[7] Passive immunity provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later.[8]

Naturally acquired passive immunity

Maternal passive immunity is a type of naturally acquired passive immunity, and refers to antibody-mediated immunity conveyed to a fetus by its mother during pregnancy. Maternal antibodies (MatAb) are passed through the placenta to the fetus by an FcRn receptor on placental cells. This occurs around the third month of gestation.[9] IgG is the only antibody isotype that can pass through the placenta.[9] Passive immunity is also provided through the transfer of IgA antibodies found in breast milk that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.[8]

One of the first bottles of diphtheria antitoxin produced (Dated 1895).

Artificially acquired passive immunity

see also: Temporarily-induced immunity

Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization induced by the transfer of antibodies, which can be administered in several forms; as human or animal blood plasma, as pooled human immunoglobulin for intravenous (IVIG) or intramuscular (IG) use, and in the form of monoclonal antibodies (MAb). Passive transfer is used prophylactically in the case of immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypogammaglobulinemia.[10] It is also used in the treatment of several types of acute infection, and to treat poisoning.[7] Immunity derived from passive immunization lasts for only a short period of time, and there is also a potential risk for hypersensitivity reactions, and serum sickness, especially from gamma globulin of non-human origin.[8]

The artificial induction of passive immunity has been used for over a century to treat infectious disease, and prior to the advent of antibiotics, was often the only specific treatment for certain infections. Immunoglobulin therapy continued to be a first line therapy in the treatment of severe respiratory diseases until the 1930’s, even after sulfonamide antibiotics were introduced.[10]

Passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity

Passive or "adoptive transfer" of cell-mediated immunity, is conferred by the transfer of "sensitized" or activated T-cells from one individual into another. It is rarely used in humans because it requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often difficult to find. In unmatched donors this type of transfer carries severe risks of graft versus host disease.[7] It has, however, been used to treat certain diseases including some types of cancer and immunodeficiency. This type of transfer differs from a bone marrow transplant, in which (undifferentiated) hematopoietic stem cells are transferred.

Active immunity

The time course of an immune response. Due to the formation of immunological memory, reinfection at later time points leads to a rapid increase in antibody production and effector T cell activity. These later infections can be mild or even inapparent.

When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells will “remember” each specific pathogen encountered, and are able to mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system. The innate system is present from birth and protects an individual from pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is "acquired" during life.

Naturally acquired active immunity

For more details on this topic, see Immune system.

Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen, and develops a primary immune response, which leads to immunological memory.[7] This type of immunity is “natural” because it is not induced by deliberate exposure. Many disorders of immune system function can affect the formation of active immunity such as immunodeficiency (both acquired and congenital forms) and immunosuppression.

Artificially acquired active immunity

Main articles: artificial induction of immunity and vaccination

Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease.[7] The term vaccination was coined by Edward Jenner and adapted by Louis Pasteur for his pioneering work in vaccination. The method Pasteur used entailed treating the infectious agents for those diseases so they lost the ability to cause serious disease. Pasteur adopted the name vaccine as a generic term in honor of Jenner's discovery, which Pasteur's work built upon.

Poster from before the 1979 eradication of smallpox, promoting vaccination.

In 1807, the Bavarians became the first group to require that their military recruits be vaccinated against smallpox, as the spread of smallpox was linked to combat.[11] Subsequently the practice of vaccination would increase with the spread of war.

There are four types of traditional vaccines:[12]

Most vaccines are given by hypodermic injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the gut. Live attenuated Polio and some Typhoid and Cholera vaccines are given orally in order to produce immunity based in the bowel.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Lindquester, Gary J. (2006) Introduction to the History of disease. Disease and Immunity, Rhodes College.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Silverstein, Arthur M. (1989) History of Immunology (Hardcover) Academic Press. Note: The first six pages of this text are available online at: (Amazon.com easy reader)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Gherardi E. The Concept of Immunity. History and Applications. Immunology Course Medical School, University of Pavia.
  4. ^ A "al-Razi." 2003 The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press (from Answers.com, 2006.)
  5. ^ a b c Maleissye J (1991). Histoire Du Poison. Paris: Francois Bourin, ISBN 2876860821 (in French. Translated in Japanese: Hashimoto I, Katagiri T, translators (1996). [History of Poison]. Tokyo: Shin-Hyoron, Ltd., ISBN 4-7948-0315-X C0020).
  6. ^ ^ This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain. "Mithridate".
  7. ^ a b c d e Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook: USC School of Medicine
  8. ^ a b c Janeway, Charles; Paul Travers, Mark Walport, and Mark Shlomchik (2001). Immunobiology; Fifth Edition. New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4101-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=imm.TOC&depth=10. .
  9. ^ a b Coico, R., Sunshine, G., and Benjamin, E. (2003). “Immunology: A Short Course.” Pg. 48.
  10. ^ a b Keller, Margaret A. and E. Richard Stiehm (Oct 2000). "Passive Immunity in Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases". Clinical Microbiology Reviews 13 (4): 602–614. doi:10.1128/CMR.13.4.602-614.2000. ISSN 0893-8512. PMID 11023960. PMC 88952. http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/13/4/602.
  11. ^ National Institutes of Health "Smallpox - A Great and Terrible Scourge" Variolation
  12. ^ Immunization: You call the shots. The National Immunization Program at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Immune system / Immunology
Systems Adaptive vs. Innate · Humoral vs. Cellular · Complement (Anaphylatoxins) · Intrinsic
Lymphoid
Antigens

Antigen (Superantigen, Allergen) · Hapten

Epitope (Linear, Conformational)
Antibodies

Antibody (Monoclonal antibodies, Polyclonal antibodies, Autoantibody) · Polyclonal B cell response · Allotype · Isotype · Idiotype

Immune complex · Paratope
Immunity vs. tolerance action: Immunity · Autoimmunity · Alloimmunity · Allergy · Hypersensitivity · Inflammation · Cross-reactivity inaction: Tolerance (Central, Peripheral, Clonal anergy, Clonal deletion, Tolerance in pregnancy) · Immunodeficiency
Immunogenetics Somatic hypermutation · V(D)J recombination · Junctional diversity · Immunoglobulin class switching · MHC/HLA
Immune cells/ White blood cells

Lymphoid: T cell · B cell · NK cell

Myeloid: Mast cell · Basophil · Eosinophil · Phagocytes (Neutrophil, Macrophage/Reticuloendothelial system)

Professional APCs: Dendritic cell · Macrophage · B cell
Substances Cytokines · Opsonin · Cytolysin
Lymphopoiesis Lymphoblast · Prolymphocyte · Thymocyte
Other Diagnostic immunology · Plant disease resistance · Respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system

: LMC

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Categories: Immune system | Immunology

 

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